From the moment of my birth

To the instant of my death,

There are patterns I must follow

Just as I must breathe each breath.

Like a rat in a maze

The path before me lies,

And the pattern never alters

Until the rat dies.

And the pattern still remains

On the wall where darkness fell,

And its fitting that it should,

For in darkness I must dwell.

Like the color of my skin,

Or the day that I grow old,

My life is made of patterns

That can scarcely be controlled.

Simon and Garfunkel

This monograph is written for the club or local tournament tennis player who desires to improve his or her winning percentage. Though written for the doubles player, it has applicability for the singles player as well. It is not about improving one’s strokes. In fact, for the player with 20-30+ years on the court, most attempts to improve one’s strokes probably have the opposite effect! It is not about standard doubles strategy. That can be found in many other references and is not always the optimal strategy for the club player. Indeed, it is a premise of this monograph that there is no such thing as a ‘standard’ doubles strategy. Optimal strategy is developed ‘on the fly’. It is constantly evolving as one learns about one’s opponents, and about one’s own game and the playing conditions on a particular day.

This monograph presents a new and different way of constructing a tennis strategy than is generally taught by club pros. The approach used is a ‘thinking man’s (or woman’s) approach to playing winning tennis. But for it to work for you, you must be willing to change your ‘patterns’ on the court, and, to some extent, off of the court. Changing patterns of response developed after decades of playing tennis is not easy. But if you are willing to try, read on.

Prepare, Prepare, and Prepare Some More

Chapter 1: Preparation

Most tennis matches ‘turn’ when doubt enters Player B’s thoughts, and confidence enters Player A’s thoughts. Tennis, like many sports, is just as much a mental and psychological competition, as it is a physical competition. IF Player A arrives more prepared to play than Player B, then Player A has a better then even chance of winning the first few games played (assuming that Player A and B have roughly equal tennis skills). If, in fact, that occurs, Player A gains confidence, and Player B begins to have doubts about his/her ability to win the match. And that can make all the difference!

Preparation for a tennis match should focus around three areas: physical, mental and material. Physical preparation includes, but is not limited to, the following considerations: diet, stretching, and warm-up. Mental preparation includes: scouting before the match and during the warm-up, analysis of the weather (wind, sun, temperature, humidity) and how it might affect strategy, and establishing a ‘strategic rapport’ with one’s partner. Material preparation is the assembly of ANY AND ALL items that could conceivably have a bearing on one’s ability to compete at an optimal level, from two well-matched rackets to sunglasses to sufficient and appropriate hydration fluid. These three aspects of preparation will be woven into a timeline for preparation below.

Days Before the Match

(Material Preparation) Rackets and shoes! Going into a match a player needs at least two well-matched racket frames strung with identical string at identical tensions and with grips of the identical size and ‘feel’. Never should a broken string compromise a player’s ability to play. Conversely, if one’s opponent breaks a string – rejoice! Most of the time his/her play will deteriorate with the replacement racket if it is significantly different from the broken racket. Shoes should be appropriate to the surface, comfortable, well-made (good support) and broken-in. Shoes with soles made specifically for the starts/stops/rotations of a tennis player should be used. A shoestring near its breakpoint should be replaced.

(Mental Preparation) If the opponents are known, scout them. Watch them play, if possible. If not, question those who have played them. What do you want to know about your opponents? EVERYTHING! Strengths, weakness, tendencies, tempo of play, personality, integrity (line-calls?), fitness, heat-tolerance, competitiveness, intelligence - the list goes on and on. (For a complete discussion of scouting your opponent consult Appendix I.) One might argue that this information can be determined during the warm-up and the first few games of the match. This is true, to some extent. However, the goal is to win those first few games in order to establish psychological dominance. Therefore, if you know at the outset that your opponent has a weak overhead, or has a tendency to poach early in a match, you have an edge during those first few games. Finally, some information on one’s opponent will only become evident later in a match unless that opponent has been scouted. An example is his/her fitness. Knowing at the beginning of a match that you are more fit, or more able to manage the heat, than your opponent might affect your strategy early in the match, before the fitness or heat-tolerance disparity becomes apparent.

The Evening Before the Match

(Physical Preparation) The keys the night before the match are minimizing alcohol intake and maximizing sleep. Alcohol has a natural dehydrating effect. If you do choose to enjoy your favorite Chardonnay with dinner, then drink extra water before bed and hop on the scale in the morning (next section).

The Morning of the Match

(Physical Preparation) Weigh yourself. If you are below your normal weight it is likely to be due to mild dehydration and not true weight loss! (Sorry, but I cannot tell a lie!) Therefore, the solution is to ‘re-hydrate’ with the goal of reaching your normal weight prior to match time. It is a myth, by the way, that one can and should ‘over-hydrate’ prior to athletic competition. Fluid balance is a finely tuned bodily process. Excess fluid is excreted through the kidneys within minutes of intake. A few ounces of fluid just prior to a match makes sense. One 8 ounce glass of water an hour before a match to correct any lingering degree of dehydration is reasonable. Two quarts an hour before a match will only buy you time in the restroom!

Two Hours Before Match Time

(Physical Preparation) Normal gastric emptying time (time for the stomach to empty after an average meal) is 3 hours. This time is lengthened with a fatty meal, possibly explaining some of the benefit of the Atkins diet; that is, a high fat diet produces a longer duration of the sense of satiety because the stomach empties more slowly. The gastric emptying time is shortened with light meals consisting primarily of carbohydrates and, to a lesser extent, protein. Therefore, a reasonable dietary plan on match day is to consume a small meal consisting of complex carbs and protein at least 2 hours before the match. Fruits, starches, juices and a small portion of very lean meat should be the prime components of this meal. Spicy and fatty foods should be avoided.

One Hour Before Match Time

(Material Preparation) Gather and organize all of the ‘things’ you might need during the match. Here is a partial list: game balls (caution: there are choices here; more to follow!) practice balls, sunglasses, replacement grip or grip wraps, towel, bug repellant, vibration dampeners, rosin, etc. etc. etc. For a comprehensive list, along with some discussion of selected items, please consult Appendix II. However, remember to customize this list to your needs. Then, print it out and use it as a reference prior to each mach – one hour before each match to be precise!

Prepare your match fluid. For a detailed analysis of optimal fluid intake during a match consult Appendix III. What follows here will simply be a summary of the information in that appendix. Optimal fluid contains salt (to replace salt lost in sweat), sugar (because it has been scientifically shown that sugar intake during competition improves athletic performance) and flavoring (because you are likely to drink more). It should be cooled by not iced (because, again, you will drink more AND it will be absorbed more quickly). The optimal fluid is a sports drink, such as Gatorade, cooled to 60-70 degrees Fahrenheit. On a very hot day an average adult can easily require a quart or more of fluid for each set of tennis played. Actual needs vary greatly from one tennis player to another. The best way to determine your fluid need is to weigh yourself before and after each match. More than 2% weight loss is too much and indicates insufficient fluid intake.

(Mental Preparation) Check the weather report! Determine temperature, humidity, cloud cover, wind direction and strength. Now take that information and spend a few minutes thinking about how to use it to your advantage during the match. Never, ever view weather conditions as a disadvantage to you. The conditions are identical for all players. Therefore, the player who can best incorporate weather into his or her strategic plan has an advantage in ANY weather conditions. For a complete discussion of weather as it affects tennis strategy please see Appendix IV.

Minutes Before the Match

(Physical Preparation) Gentle stretching prior to a match reduces warm-up time and probably reduces the risk of injury early in a match. Stretching should not be ‘intense’. In fact, a recent study demonstrated increased risk of injury with intense, painful stretching prior to competition and decreased athletic performance! Stretch all muscle groups including the trunk or ‘core’. Don’t forget back and groin muscles. There are many stretching routines specific for tennis available on the web. One example can be found at: http://www.tennis.com/yourgame/fitness/fitness.aspx?id=35298. Find the one that works for you and, most importantly, never ever play a match without performing that routine. It is obviously best to stretch just prior to the warm-up.

Warm up your serve BEFORE arriving at the court where the match will be played. Why? There are five reasons for this recommendation. First, it allows you to control the pace of your warm-up. How often have you walked onto a court and had your opponent hit the first warm-up shot at 80 mph? This risks injury and does not allow time to ‘groove’ your stroke before being pressed to hit a ball you are not quite set to hit. Secondly, for many players the serve is their most important stroke. When a player has confidence in her serve, the rest of her game tends to follow along. Serving well breeds confidence, not just during one’s service game, but when returning serve as well. Specifically, a player feels more able to take risks when the opponent is serving if she is confident that that risk-taking will not put her at a disadvantage that cannot be recouped with her next service game. Thirdly, most players tinker with their service motions. They try a slightly different toss, or backswing, or knee bend. As a result a player’s service motion is often not as well-grooved as other strokes. A few minutes of communing in a ‘heart-to-heart’ fashion with your serve prior to play is good for both of you (you and your serve!). You want to find your groove on the serve that day before you ever walk onto the match court. Next, during the match warm-up you are likely to only be able to practice your serve in one direction. Warming up your serve in advance of the match allows you to hit a few serves both with and against the sun and wind. Finally, if your serve is ready-to-go when you warm up with your opponent, then you can concentrate on your service return when the opponent is practicing his/her serve. The service return is probably the least-practiced shot in tennis. Be ready to practice your returns against your opponent’s serve. And, by all means, do not simply practice returning the serve right back to your opponent. Practice chipping, lobbing, and hitting down the line (all the while staying within the limits of good sportsmanship during the warm-up, of course). It may well enable you to be the first to break serve.

(Mental Preparation) Meet with your partner. Discuss what you know about the opponents and the weather. Discuss things like: who will serve first, who will serve on the sunny side, who will play in the deuce court, what are some likely winning strategies, who is going to be the ‘captain’ on the court, etc. etc. See Chapters 2, 3 and 4 for more in depth discussion of tennis strategy.

Match Time

(Material) Prepare the area where you will rest during court changes. Get to the court before your opponent so that you have first choice of the location. One bench may be in shade, the other in sun. The bench you choose will tend to determine which side you warm up on. Choose that bench to your advantage based on the sun’s position. Over 90% of tennis courts are situated in a north/south orientation. Therefore, most of the time, choosing the bench on the south side will be best, but there are exceptions. If neither bench offers shade, locate, if possible, a spot outside of the court where there is shade and claim it! Organize your ‘things’ for ready access. Don’t find yourself forced to play into the sun on a sunny day because you couldn’t quickly locate your sunglasses on court change.

Balls matter! And this is not meant to be a sexist statement! The brand of tennis ball used affects the speed of the game, particularly on clay courts when conditions are wet or humid. The nap on every tennis ball ‘fluffs’ with use. However, the problem is more exaggerated with some brands compared to others. Penn clay court balls fluff a bit more than Wilson clay court balls. The ball which fluffs the least is the Wilson Titanium. The more the nap expands during play, the slower the game, the greater the effect of spin, and the more effort is required to generate the same amount of pace. The slow ball favors the player who uses a great deal of spin, is physically strong and has trouble handling pace. It also favors the better conditioned player because the points tend to be longer. The Wilson Titanium ball favors the player who handles pace well, is quick to the ball and uses pace as a major weapon. Tournaments generally dictate the ball to be used. However, in social matches, club tournaments and even league play there is often some ability to influence the brand of tennis ball that will be used during a match. If you can influence that choice, then try to delay opening balls until after the warm-up. Then use what you have learned about your opponent during the warm-up (and what you know about your own game and weather conditions) to select a ball that will benefit you or your doubles team.

(Physical) Warm up systematically. Practice every shot, but spend a bit more time on those shots that you will be relying on most. If, for example, you will be playing the add side of the court and expect your opponents to be able to hit fairly sharp cross court shots, then hit more backhands than forehands, including a few down the line to beat a poach. Hit a few lobs and take note of the effect of the wind on your lobs. Hit a drop shot, a few overheads; take a few balls on the rise, hit a drop volley. IF you have a strong weapon that you can always count on, however, hide it. Suppose you have a devastating overhead. Keep it under wraps. Hit a few easy ones to loosen your arm and fine-tune your timing. But don’t let your opponent know how strong that shot is. In fact, you might even intentionally whiff one! (Perfectly legal.)

(Mental) Use the warm up to learn as much as you can about your opponent. And try to delay the racket toss for choice of side and serve until after you have had the warm up to study your opponent. If, for example, you know that one of your opponents is a lefty with a big serve, then with a bit of luck you can orchestrate the outcome of the racket toss to either force him to serve second or serve into the sun! (Managing the racket toss will be discussed in more detail below.)

So what can you learn about your opponent during the warm-up? A LOT! Obviously, you want to assess the quality of each of his or her strokes – their consistency, accuracy and pace. But there is much more to learn. Does the player usually hit backspin or overspin. It is easier to play the net against backspin because the ball is likely to be rising as the net player strikes the ball rather than diving down to your feet. However, caution, the player who hits backspin generally has a better lob. Watch your opponent’s footwork. How does he handle the sun on lobs? How close does he stand to the net when hitting volleys. How does he handle pace? Spin? The player who hits overspin often has difficulty hitting shots around his shoulders or above. Has he developed the ability to play these with backspin? Hit him a few and find out!

So now you are ready to spin the racket. At last! You have prepared so thoroughly, and studied your opponent so carefully. Now use that preparation and knowledge to make intelligent choices during the racket spin. The outcome of the match could rest on the choices you make. To serve, or to receive, that is the first question. Traditionally, a player who wins the toss will choose to serve. He assumes that he is more likely to win his service games and, thereafter, will be playing ‘in the lead’. And if, by chance, he loses his serve at some point during the set, not all is lost! His opponent still must win his serve to solidify ‘the break’. The general thinking is that there is less pressure on the player who serves first. For the advanced younger player that is sound reasoning. However, for the older club or local tournament player receiving first has several advantages. These are listed below:

1) IF you are more prepared (and you certainly should be if you have heeded the recommendations in this monograph!) then that first game is yours! All the better if it is your opponent’s service game.

2) The first to receive serve will always sit and rest prior to his/her service game for the remainder of that first set. Holding serve is crucial. The player about to serve can use the court change time to recover some energy, cool down a bit, and think about the strategy to be used during his upcoming service game. And the doubles team about to serve can communicate with each other regarding the optimal strategy for that service game. (Now, you might argue that one’s opponent(s) can do the same. He (they) can cool down, rest and strategize about how to break your serve. True, to some extent. But you can do it better, particularly after reading this monograph! You will be more attentive to cooling down, and you will strategize more effectively.) Finally, and conversely, the player (or team) that serves first will be playing his/her service game immediately after receiving serve (no break). The server (who chose to receive with the racket spin) can use this to his/her advantage during his serve by trying to tire the opponent just prior to the opponent’s serve. A drop shot or two when a server is up 40-Love can pay dividends when it’s the opponents turn to serve.

3) If you happen to be a slow-starter, then losing the first game (if served by your opponent) does not immediately place you at a huge disadvantage. And, you have had the opportunity to learn a bit more about your opponent before you must hold serve.

Ideally, you want to make both the service choice and choice of side. Of course, the rules don’t allow that directly. However, with surprising frequency you can get both, even if you lose the racket spin! The key is that most of your opponents will choose to serve, when given the choice. Now assume that you are convinced by the above arguments and, therefore, you desire to receive first. Consider the following scenarios:

1) You win the toss. You defer. Your opponent chooses to serve. You then choose the side! Walla – you got everything you wanted.

2) You lose the toss. Your opponent chooses to serve. You choose the side and, once more, you got it all!

One final point, when choosing side pay careful attention to the sun and the presence of lefties on your team or the opponents’ team. The goal is, as mentioned above, to orchestrate the choices so that: 1) either the weaker-serving opponent serves first or the stronger-server serves into the sun, and 2) conversely, you want to maximize your lefty advantage (if you have one) by orchestrating the choices such that your stronger server goes first and neither of you serves into the sun.

Decisions, Decisions, Decisions

Chapter 2: Decision-making

A tennis court is 78 feet long. Suppose that your opponent hits a ball from the far baseline to you, standing at the near baseline, at 60mph. That equals 88 feet per second. Therefore, you have less than one second to react to that shot. In that time you need to make 5 decisions: 1) at what point in the flight of the ball will I strike the ball (volley, half-volley, on the rise, etc.), 2) where do I want my return to land, 3) how hard do I want to hit the ball, 4) what kind and how much spin do I want to impart to the ball, and 5) where will I go after hitting the ball. In addition, if you are playing doubles, your partner must decide where to position him/herself as you strike the ball, for a total of 6 decisions with every shot a doubles team makes. Now assume that the average point involves 3 shots by your team. That calculates to 18 decisions with each point. Next assume that the average game has six points and you are up to 108 decisions per game. Continuing this line of reasoning, assume that the average set consists of 9 games, and this totals to almost 1000 decisions per set! Finally, assume a 3 set match and there are 3000 decisions to be made during the course of that match! IF Bill Tilden, looking down from on high, scores your team’s decision-making and that of our opponents, and IF you score a B+ and your opponents a C-, then you have a definite advantage.

But wait, that’s not all (as the TV ad man would say!). There are many more decisions to make. Below is just a partial listing of the many decisions that a tennis player makes, consciously or unconsciously, during every tennis match:

1) How close do I call the lines?

2) Do I make social conversation with my opponent?

3) Who serves first?

4) Who plays the deuce court?

5) Do we play the Australian formation?

6) At what location on the baseline do I stand when I serve? (And you make this decision with every serve!)

7) Where do I stand to receive serve?

8) How close do I play to the net?

9) Do I challenge a bad line call? Multiple bad line calls?

10) How should I challenge a poor call?

11) Should I push for new balls for the third set?

12) At what pace do I play?

13) Do I call a let if I was distracted?

14) Do I apologize if my shot hits my opponent?

15) Do I call the score before each point?

16) Do I wear sunglasses if I am serving into the sun but the opposite side of the court is in shade?

17) Do I . . . (you get the idea)

The total number of decisions made during the course of a simple tennis match is astounding. It easily exceeds 5000 decisions. Tennis probably rates as one of the most cerebral of all sports. Compare it to golf. The skilled golfer will hit about 80 shots. The ball is stationary, eliminating one of the decisions that a tennis player must make. However, the golfer does need to choose a club. Assume 5 decisions per shot in golf and the total number of decisions related to shot-making is 400. Furthermore, the golfer has several minutes to make these 5 decisions on each shot! There is no comparison.

A few of the decisions above will be discussed in more detail below.

1) How close do I call the lines? You might think that the answer is obvious – out is out, in is in! Not so fast. You might choose to call a shot that is out by just a hair ‘in’ to send two messages to your opponent: 1) that you intend to be generous with your calls (in order to encourage him to do the same), and 2) that you are a ‘good guy’ who views the sport as ‘just a game’ and not a ‘personal’ competition (concealing, of course, the true fire in your belly). The goal is to keep the ‘competitive juices’ of your opponent in check and not let him know that your ‘juices’ are running wild! Conversely, if your opponent has given you a bad call or two, you might want to send a message that you can and will do the same, if necessary.

2) Do I make social conversation with my opponent? Again the issue is one of controlling your opponent’s competitiveness. Asking about ‘the wife and kids’ or what he does for a living could help in that regard. But be sure that you do not let him do the same to you! In general, you want to spend your time during court change reviewing in your mind the strategies that are and are not working in the match. Conversation distracts you from this analysis. Assuming that your thinking is going to be more productive than your opponent’s, it is best to hold conversation to a minimum. That said, if you are certain of the strategy you intend to play during the next 2 games, then by all means engage your opponent in conversation to: 1) reduce the time your opponent has to analyze the match and, 2) nudge your opponent to view the match as ‘just a game’ (J)

12) At what pace or tempo do I play? The pace of play is a very under-appreciated component of tennis strategy. The rule is that the server sets the pace. That said there are subtle ways that the receiver can slow down the server, if he/she so chooses. So what is best for you? Here are some guidelines. Fast pace benefits the following: the better-conditioned player, the more heat-tolerant player, the player who is ahead, and the player who is certain of the strategy she wishes to employ. Another factor is your personal comfort level with a certain pace. So how do you slow the pace of the game? There are overt and covert ways of changing the pace. Overtly, one can simply avoid going into the ready position to return serve until YOU are ready – turn your back, towel off, raise your hand, etc. But you may not want to be so obvious. Here are some subtle was of slowing down a server: retrieve the third ball even if not needed for that point, erase a mark, delay play for any off-court distraction, ‘accidentally’ hit the net with a ball you are sending back to the server, clean the court of debris, etc. etc. An absolute rule of sport is: never change a winning game, always change a losing game. Changing the pace is one fairly easy change that can be made. So, if you are losing, change the pace. And usually the best choice will be to slow the pace of the match. One final point regarding the pace of the match, never every allow your opponent to make you wait for him or her before serving. That is, never concede that he is dictating the pace during your serve. If you sense that the receiver is trying to slow you down, then you have two choices. First, if it is blatant you can cite the rule that the receiver must, within reason, play to the pace of the server. Second, if your opponent is being more subtle, then slow your pace as well. Never ever allow your opponent to believe that she is controlling your pace, or any other aspect of the match, for that matter. Your goal is to dominate the psychology of the match.

Decisions, decisions, decisions! In reality, if one approaches a match as 5000 decisions it would probably paralyze one into a state of indecision! So, we fall into patterns – return cross court, never play the Australian formation, always try to volley deep, and on and on. If the patterns are working, don’t change, right? Not necessarily. True, the rule above says to never change a winning game but with each victory we further imbed our patterns into our neural synapses. (Patterns of response become patterns by facilitating, through continuous imprinting, the development of standard pathways along which signals within our nervous system travel.) Therefore, there are two situations in which a player should challenge himself to move beyond his standard patterns of play. First, use social matches of little importance to break old patterns and practice new ones. Secondly, if you are in an important match and your normal patterns are not working, then, by all means, push yourself to change your reactions on the court. You will find that it isn’t easy. You will tell yourself just before your opponent serves to try an alley return, but often you will not. Your neural patterns take over as the serve crosses the net and, bingo, you hit crosscourt! Patterns embedded over years are not easy to break. The following chapters will suggest new ways of looking at tennis strategy that may help you to play new strategies on the court.

[ after Ray spills a box of toothpicks on the floor ]

_{Raymond: 82, 82, 82.
Charlie: 82 what?
Raymond: Toothpicks.
Charlie: There's a lot more than 82 toothpicks, Ray.
Raymond: 246 total.
Charlie: How many?
Sally Dibbs: 250.
Charlie: Pretty close.
Sally Dibbs: There's four left in the box.}

From Rain Man (1988)

Chapter 3: Count the Cards

Raymond, Charlie’s brilliant but autistic brother in the movie Rain Man, made a fortune in Las Vegas for his brother because of his ability to ‘count cards’. For most card games, the ability to remember the cards that have been played (count cards) allows a player to improve his ability to guess what cards are still left to be played, as well as the odds that they will be played. The smart tennis player ‘counts the cards’ played by his/her opponent. But in tennis the card that has been played can and will be played again! Your opponent is a collection of patterns too! The less time he/she has to think about a shot, the more likely he or she is to hit the same shot as before. So, count the cards!

What cards should you be counting? Answer: shot selection, shot effectiveness and movements on the court. All of these are covered in detail in Appendix I – Scouting An Opponent. That information will be summarized briefly here. Then we will turn our attention to the ways in which this information is best used to develop winning strategies.

Many factors affect an opponent’s patterns of shot selection. These include: court formations (the locations of the 2 or 4 players on the court – more on this in the next chapter), pace of the oncoming shot, stroke being used to play the shot, score of the match and weather factors. The goal is to identify not just a player’s general preference, but those factors that influence that preference. For every formation on the court you need to develop a running tally of your opponent’s shot selections and how they change with changing circumstances. Let’s take an example. Suppose you are playing doubles and you serve to your opponent’s forehand in the deuce court. More than likely your opponent will return cross court. Move your partner at the net to different locations and see how that affects shot selection. If the opponent is smart, he will lob when your partner moves forward and try the alley if your partner moves to the center of the court. What happens if you serve and approach the net? Does the speed of your serve affect choice of shot (many players are more likely to lob a serve hit with substantial pace)? Can you detect a pattern based on whether the score is 15-40 or 40-15? (Most players become more conservative when behind.) Does it vary from sunny to shady side of the court?

The effectiveness of a shot is as critical as shot selection as you ‘count the cards’. If your opponent tends to lob in certain situations and his lobs are weak, then by all means try to create those situations, particularly on important points. On the other hand, if his lobs are very effective, then either avoid those situations OR anticipate that lob and turn his strength to your advantage. Be careful not to equate pace with effectiveness. The player who hits a powerful forehand may also make errors off of that shot. It you handle pace reasonably well, then playing to a powerful shot may earn you more errors than it earns your opponent winners. Judge effectives by consistency, depth, placement and disguise, not just pace.

Most players have figured out the value of assessing an opponent’s shot selection. However, with a few exceptions, the movements of an opponent on the court are not generally well-appreciated. The exceptions are: general level of mobility, poaching and approaching the net. But there is much more to study regarding an opponent’s movements on the court. Below is just a partial list.

1) Does a player close to the net after the first volley making him or her vulnerable to the lob on the next shot)?

2) Does a net player routinely take a step towards the middle after his partner’s serve (very common, very vulnerable to an alley shot even when not actually poaching)?

3) Does a net player slowly retreat during an exchange (common among senior players who feel vulnerable to the lob)?

4) Is a player anticipating your shot selection (has he recognized your patterns!)?

So it’s the third set and you have been counting the cards. Now, can you act on that information, and when best to act? The player who can now best escape his or her patterns and adjust to the opponent’s patterns of play wins! Practice changing your patterns of play so that you are more able to do so at crucial points in a crucial match. So that then begs the question: ‘What are the crucial points in a match?’ Some are obvious. All players know that at six-all in a tiebreaker, the next point is BIG. But many crucial points come much earlier in a match and are not so obvious. Below is a partial list.

1) If service holds are standard fair in a particular match, then any point that gives an opening for a break is a big point. Love-30 would be an example, even in the first game of the match!

2) Long points can be key points. I player that expends a great deal of energy on a point and comes up empty gets discouraged, particularly if it happens frequently. Similarly, winning the long game can turn a match.

3) Points that create dissention between doubles partners can be key points. If you sense that a team is not fully supportive of each other, then orchestrating a point that can drive another wedge between your two opponents can be critical. For example, if one of the opponents shows frustration when his partner misses a volley, then try to generate another similar error during one of the next few points.

4) Suppose that it’s a very sunny day and a pattern has been established that each team wins the two games played with their backs to the sun. Then exploiting your opponents’ patterns of shot selection during one of the games when you are facing the sun can generate a critical ‘break’ in the ‘sun advantage’.

The bottom line is this: do not immediately act on a pattern of play that you identify. Put it in your hip pocket and use it when you need it most! Use it to win the ‘big points’.

First gain tactical advantage, and then fight the battle.

Chapter 4: Formations

There are 8 ways that a doubles team (let’s call them players A and B) will generally position themselves on a tennis court. If A is playing the deuce side and B the add side, then there are 4 choices – both up, both back, and 2 choices for ‘one up, one back’. Now reverse sides for A and B (which happens during the course of a match even if A receives on the deuce side and B on the add side) and there are 4 more choices, for a total 8 positions that these two players can find themselves in during the course of a match. The same is true for their opponents, of course. So, there are 64 (8x8) potential court ‘formations’ possible during the course of a match involving these 4 players. Some of these formations will inherently favor one team, and some of them will inherently favor the opposing team. Let’s take an example. In the formation below assume that A is right-handed and has an outstanding forehand. Further assume that C is left-handed and has a weak backhand. AB’s tactical position is strong compared to CD’s. Player A can play his strong forehand crosscourt directly at Player C’s weak backhand.

Sans other considerations, Team AB should let the point play out in the current formation. The advantage is theirs. Team CD, on the other hand, must do one of two things: 1) change the court formation, or 2) take risk. The status quo is unacceptable. Let’s first examine how CD might alter the court formation. There are many options, some of which are listed below. Before you read on, see how many options you can come up with.

1) C could ‘chip and charge’ to the net

2) C could lob over B, moving A to C’s side of the court where A’s backhand is more exposed and C’s backhand less exposed.

3) D could retreat and move to the center of the court, moving C to the right, somewhat protecting C’s backhand (but exposing D to an alley shot)

4) CD could have pre-planned the following maneuver: C hits a crosscourt lob and, when it is apparent that A is playing the shot on the bounce, C and D switch sides

Suppose that none of these is a viable option. C is not comfortable chipping or lobbing and other options have been tried and failed. Then the CD must take risk. To do nothing is to lose the point. Taking risk may win 20-30% of the time when caught in this formation and this may be a definite improvement over the results that might otherwise occur. Below is a list of ‘risks’ available to CD. Again, before you read on, see how many you can come up with.

1) D could poach, and the sooner the better. With each crosscourt exchange the likelihood of losing the point increases.

2) C could anticipate a crosscourt shot, move outside the alley and go for a forehand winner.

3) C could anticipate a crosscourt shot, move outside the alley and hit a shot that changes the formation (e.g., lob over B),

4) C could ‘guess’ that B is going to poach in order to try to take advantage of his weak backhand. C could then simply push a shot down the alley.

5) C could simply attack the net off of an admittedly fairly weak crosscourt backhand shot.

6) C could move to the right, protecting his backhand and inviting A to try a winner down the middle or a lob over D.

7) C could anticipate the a crosscourt shot, move outside the alley and hit directly at B or down his alley. D, knowing his partner’s plan, could move in front of B to pick off his volley return.

For each of the 64 formations, the team at a disadvantage has roughly 10 ways of either forcing a new formation or taking risk. That calculates to approximately 600 options to be considered ‘on the fly’. Fortunately, it can be simplified a bit. In reality, a doubles match consists of 8 points. In the final chapter we will condense all of the preceding information into an eight point tennis doubles strategy. It will be a fluid strategy, affected by all that you learn as the match evolves. But it will be a usable strategy that is not overwhelmed by so much decision-making that you do not have energy in reserve to play the match!

Know yourself, know your enemy. - Mao Zedung

Chapter 5: The Eight Point Doubles Strategy

Doubles consists of eight points played over and over and over again. Each of the four players serves to the deuce and add sides of the court, over and over again. The key to successful doubles is NOT to construct a strategy for the entire match, but for each of these eight points. Initially, for a given point, you take your knowledge of the opponents’ apparent strengths and weakness AND an honest assessment of your own strengths and weaknesses and weather factors, to determine those formations that are advantageous to your team and those that are disadvantageous to your team. Then, as the match progresses, you refine your understanding of formations relative to each of those eight points. Let’s take an example (please refer to the diagram below). The starting point is the same is above with A having a strong forehand and C a weak backhand. However, now we are going to add that A (the server) has a twist serve that tends to find C’s forehand (remember, C is a lefty). Finally, let’s assume that C has an excellent forehand that he can hit with some depth and that D has an excellent overhead. We know that the initial formation is not good for CD (your team). You decide that you want to quickly move to a better formation. What would you do?

There are several options. One would be for C to try to play a forehand return deep into A’s side of the court and approach the net. True, there is an element of risk because A has a strong forehand and might get to C’s feet as he approaches. But the alternative of staying in the initial formation is worse. If C makes that first volley, CD are now well positioned, particularly since D’s strong overhead will be positioned to take most lobs played. The new formation is pictured below. Notice that CD are positioned to the right of center because the ball has been hit wide to A’s forehand. D is responsible for the alley, shots right at him and most lobs, including all but the widest lobs over C’s head. Accordingly he is playing a bit farther from the net than A. C is responsible for the middle (most likely shot) and a moderate cross-court return. The wide return is conceded. If A can hit it (the hardest shot) then it’s his point and, if he hits it repeatedly, time for a change in strategy. Notice that C is close to the net because the team is most vulnerable to the low shot over the center strap. Of course, all this changes if A’s tendencies are known. If A never lobs, then D moves closer to the net. If Team CD is looking into a bright sun (next scenario), then the entire strategy may need to be changed.

Now go back to the original diagram, with A serving to C. Assume that DC are facing into a bright sun that is causing them major problems when they hit overheads. In that case, the strategy we just outlined (changing the formation by getting C to the net) is not viable (unless, of course, A isn’t a very smart player and never lobs). What are the options? C could lob over B, but notice that B is playing fairly far back from the net (assuming he stays there after A serves) and is, therefore, able to cover most lobs AND B has his back to the sun. So the options for CD to move out of their initial formation when returning serve are limit. What to do? Take risk! Here are two choices. First, C could drive his forehand at B or B’s alley and D, knowing the shot his partner is going to play, could cross in front of B to pick off his volley. That is diagrammed below.

Another option would be for CD to set up a poach on A’s first forehand return. That option is diagrammed below. Two favorable outcomes might occur. First, D may successfully pick off A’s return and win the point, or A recognizes the poach and hits to the location that C has moved to. In the latter case, CD have improved their formation by taking risk. Of course, there could be some unfavorable outcomes as well, but let’s stick to positive thinking!

Now, let’s go back to the first strategy (C hits a deep cross court shot and approaches the net) and assume that this strategy is played a few times by CD and is successful for them. How does Team AB respond? They talk and decide that the resulting formation (CD at the net) is unacceptable. It simply cannot be allowed to happen! Who is in charge here anyway? So Team AB decides to counter in one of several ways, again always thinking in terms of formations. Here are a few of the many possibilities:

1) A plays serve and volley. This does mean approaching the net against C’s strong forehand, but a successful crosscourt volley hit C’s weak backhand with A and B both at the net.

2) A serves from the alley with an exaggerated stance facing the court, allowing him to serve crosscourt. Either he gets to C’s backhand or C is so deep in the court that approaching the net is not possible. Either way, the initial formation is preserved, and AB have taken back the ‘formation advantage’.

3) AB could play the Australian formation pictured below. (See Appendix V for more information on the Australian formation.) This forces C to move to the middle, leaving his backhand somewhat more exposed during the serve. But it is risky. It opens up the possibility of C directing a strong forehand to A’s backhand.

Suppose that AB employ the first option listed above (serve and volley) and it works. Now CD must reply. This time assume that AB are looking into the sun. C, rather than driving his forehand, moves back and towards the alley (because he is farther back he can move to cover his backhand without too much risk of being aced down the middle. C then returns with a lob into the sun. If it drops, C and D move to the net and, once again, they have achieved a formation that favors them. This strategy is diagramed below. The key is that AB and CD are constantly talking to each other about formations, not shots. Both members of a doubles team must be in absolute harmony regarding: 1) formations preferred and not preferred, and 2) the tactics the team will employ to gain a preferred formation.

‘Standard’ doubles strategy says that the formation below is optimal for CD and terrible for AB.

No doubt that that is true for young, advanced players. But is definitely not always true at the club level or senior level tennis. If D has a weak overhead, this is not a good formation to be in. If D has a fairly strong overhead but wears two knee braces and has poor mobility it isn’t much better. If C and D have good overheads but are looking into bright sun, it is not a good formation. If a major strength of team AB is their ability to hit offensive, over-spin lobs, it isn’t a good formation to be in. Need any more examples? ‘Standard’ doubles strategy does not apply to club level and senior level doubles. It is a much more complex, more intricate, more cerebral game than played by the pros. The wining team gains knowledge of their opponents both before the match, during the warm-up and during the match to determine those court formations that favor them. They maneuver to get those formations BEFORE trying to win the point, and, when they can’t successfully maneuver to a preferred formation, they take risk. Finally, they do not allow their usual patterns of response to inhibit the development of this strategy AND they quickly recognize and exploit their opponents’ patterns.

Appendix I: Scouting an Opponent

As noted in the text, you want to know EVERYTHING about your opponent. It will not be possible to accomplish this, of course. The point is to learn as much as you can and regard no piece of information as irrelevant. The following is just a partial list with selected notes on why a particular factor might be relevant.

• For each stroke (BH, FH, First Serve, Second Serve, Volley, Overhead)
  • Pace
  • Ability to Respond to Pace
  • Depth (deep strokes, unless they have a great deal of pace behind them, will clear the net by several feet; their depth is an advantage to your opponent if you are stuck in the backcourt, but an advantage to you if you are at the net)
  • Spin
  • Consistency
  • Variety (lob – defensive/offensive, drop shot, chip and charge, angles)
• Movement
  • Right/left, Up/back when moving to a shot
  • Movement tendencies after a shot (closing at the net, moving back from the net, just after his partner has served, etc.)
• Fitness and Heat Tolerance
• Sun, Wind and Cold Tolerance
• Tempo or Pace of Play
• Personality/Temperament
  • Integrity (line calls, scoring)
  • Competitiveness (and factors that might influence)
  • Aggressiveness (tendency to question calls)
  • Intelligence
  • Distractibility
  • Response to a tight match, important point, losing, winning
  • Utilization of psychological strategies, if any.

Factors to assess when evaluating a doubles team:

• Use of signals
• Communication
• Mutual Support
• Experience Together
• Teamwork
  • Coordinated movements
  • Recognition of which player has the best opportunity to return a shot effectively (and each defers to he other as needed to maximize their chance of winning the point)
• Positioning
  • Proximity to the net when at net
  • Net player when partner is serving
  • Use of the Australian Formation
• Tendencies (each player)
  • Poaching
  • Serve Returns (frequency with which they are not cross court)
  • Responding to two opponents at the net (driving, lobbing, hitting an angle)
  • Responding to a poach move
  • On Selected Shots (are overheads angled or hit at the opponent? Volleys?)

Appendix II: Equipment

ANYTHING that you might need during a match goes on this list. The list should then be printed out and checked before every match. Something may be missing!

• Rackets
  • Two absolutely matched rackets
  • (Traveling to a tournament) 1 package of string
  • Grips, Overgrips and the equipment to apply them to the racket (tape, scissors, etc.)
  • Racket Tape
  • Rosin, Stickum
  • Vibration Dampeners
• Tennis Balls (consider two brands)
• Sun Gear
  • Sunglasses
  • Hat or Visor
  • Sunscreen
  • Umbrella
• Cold Weather Gear
  • Racket Glove
  • Pocket Warmer
  • Sweater and other clothing that allows layering
• Hot, Humid Weather Gear
  • Clothing accessories that can be iced (appropriate hat, neck wrap, etc.)
  • Extra shirt (caution: from a temperature control perspective it is best to continue to wear that sweaty shirt)
• Towels
• Fluids (see Appendix III)
• Net Measure
• Bug Repellant
• Braces, wraps, Band-Aids, Medical Tape, Ibuprofen and other first aid equipment of your choice
• Equipment to manage glasses or contacts
• Compass to determine court orientation
• Folding chair

Appendix III – Hydration Fluid

The American Academy of Sports Medicine published in 2006 a ‘consensus statement’ on the topic of hydration fluids during vigorous sports activity. That statement was heavily supported by an extensive review and analysis of the published medical studies pertaining to the topic. Each recommendation made was well-supported by high quality research. Below is their summary statement (statements in brackets [ ] added for clarification):

‘To minimize risk of thermal injury and impairment of exercise performance during exercise, fluid replacement should attempt to equal fluid loss. At equal exercise intensity, the requirement for fluid replacement becomes greater with increased sweating during environmental thermal stress. During exercise lasting longer than 1 h, a) carbohydrates should be added to the fluid replacement solution to maintain blood glucose concentration and delay the onset of fatigue, and b) electrolytes (primarily NaCl [read: salt]) should be added to the fluid replacement solution to enhance palatability and reduce the probability for development of hyponatremia [low blood salt content]. During exercise, fluid and carbohydrate requirements can be met simultaneously by ingesting 600-1200 ml ? h^-1 [1000 ml is roughly equivalent to 1 quart of fluid] of solutions containing 4%-8% carbohydrate. During exercise greater than 1 h, approximately 0.5-0.7 g of sodium per liter of water would be appropriate to replace that lost from sweating.’

Gatorade contains 5.7% carbohydrate and .45g of sodium/L.

One’s optimal intake should be determined by repeatedly weighing one’s self before and after competition. More than 2% weight loss is unacceptable and represents inadequate fluid intake. As a general rule, athletes’ thirst alone is insufficient to drive adequate fluid intake. Therefore, again in general, (and you will only know with certainly by monitoring your weight) you want to drink a bit more on each court change than your natural thirst compels you to drink. But caution here. Too much fluid can also be ingested. So weigh yourself to arrive at the correct answer for you.

As noted in the text, the optimal temperature of the hydration fluid is between 60 and 70 degrees Fahrenheit.

Sugar improves athletic performance. Let me repeat that. Sugar improves athletic performance – proven multiple times in well-controlled studies. Therefore, if the goal is to win, consume fluid with some sugar, not pure water or artificially sweetened drinks. Now, if your primary goal is weight loss, then you shouldn’t have been reading this monograph!

Appendix IV: Weather

The weather changes! Don’t rely on a glance out of your window to determine what you bring to match. And don’t rely on the weather when the racket is tossed to make your choices of side and serve. Plan ahead. Check the forecast and the radar scan. There are five things you want to know.

Temperature and Humidity. This will affect that clothing and accessories you bring and wear and the amount of fluid you bring.

Wind Velocity and Direction. This often has a profound affect on your tactics. Cross-winds are easiest to deal with. Variable winds can be tough. Wind blowing lengthwise has the largest impact on shot selection. Each will be discussed briefly.

· Cross-winds. The KEY is to remind yourself on each and every court change of the adjustment you need to make when lobbing to accommodate the wind. In fact, it is not unreasonable to remind yourself prior to every point. The wind then becomes an advantage. You can use it to blow your shot into the court, while your opponent struggles with the extra movement on the ball. The other consideration is choice of side from which each player on a doubles team serves. Generally, you want to use the wind to take a player farther off of the court during the serve, or assist you in playing to an opponent’s weakness. For example, suppose that on Team AB, player A is a righty and player B is a lefty. Further assume that they both have slice serves with A able to easily serve wide to the deuce court and B can do the same into the add court. Finally, assume that the wind is blowing east to west. You want the lefty serving on the north side of the court (assuming sun is not a factor) and the righty serving on the south side.

· Variable winds of mild to low-moderate strength are particularly difficult because these winds are often not easily appreciated by the players on a well-screened court. Above the windscreens the wind is fairly forceful. But at court level it is difficult to appreciate their force or direction. It’s best to try to avoid using many lobs in that environment.

· Lengthwise winds require three adjustments.

- Lobbing with the wind should be avoided, if possible. If not, consider hitting a very high, short lob and let the wind take it deep into the court. Even if it falls short, the extra height and movement imparted by the wind makes for a fairly tough overhead AND that overhead is being hit into the wind. If you are lobbing against the wind, hit it hard AND with lots of spin. The spin will create extra grip against the wind and hold your hard hit shot in the court.

- Extending the point when hitting with the wind is a good tactic. Your opponent has to work much harder than you during these points. If you are against the wind, then shorten the point by coming to the net. Remember, your opponent will have a tough time lobbing. So come to the net AND close to the net AND be prepared for a shot that is hit with extra force because of the wind.

- Choice of side from which each player on a team serves is profoundly affected by the wind. Here are the key considerations that contribute to that decision.

- If the stronger server also hits a flat serve or a mild slice, then there is risk that serving with the wind will take his serves long. He might be better off serving against the wind.

- The server with a twist motion is probably best able to hit with the wind, and his serve is most hampered when serving against the wind.

- Generally, you want to get to the net first if you are facing the wind. Therefore, the server who is most comfortable with the serve and volley game should serve against the wind.

- The physically stronger partner should serve into the wind, anticipating that these points will be longer.

- If one serve is very weak, then it should be sacrificed. The stronger serve should be optimized to assure one ‘guaranteed game’. The server with that strong serve chooses his preferred side.

Appendix V: The Australian Foramtion

The Australian Formation (AF) is very under-utilized in tennis. It is diagrammed below. A is serving. AB will want to move out of this formation after the serve is struck because, at the outset, one-half of the court is uncovered. There are several ways of moving out of that formation. The most common is diagrammed.

The AF has two potential advantages for team AB. First it facilitates A’s ability to serve down the middle of the court (to the ‘T’ in tennis lingo). This is useful if C is a righty with a weak backhand (or lefty with a weak forehand). It is also useful if A’s ‘T’ serve is much stronger than his wide serve. For example, if A has a ‘kick serve and can hit close to the T it can have the effect of moving C to D’s side of the court to hit the return.

But the second advantage of the AF is its main value. It places AB in a formation that is, possibly, strategically stronger than the standard formation that results after A serves to the deuce court (assuming A is not playing serve and volley). Examples are listed below. Only the first will be diagrammed.

1) If C is a righty with a weak backhand, for example, it now not only enables A to serve to C’s backhand more easily but it also exposes C’s backhand during the subsequent rally. Below, the first diagram illustrates the difficulty of rallying to C’s backhand out of the standard formation, and the next diagram illustrates the ‘relative’ ease of doing so after serving from the Australian formation. D should move closer to the middle to discourage A from hitting to C’s backhand!

2) If B is a lefty with a good overhead and forehand volley, and a relatively weak backhand volley, then the ‘playing formation’ that AF creates after the serve places B in a much more favorable position to exploit his strengths.

3) If A is a lefty with a strong forehand, the AF produces a stronger playing formation for AB.

4) If it is 3PM and the sun is bright, A is a righty, and B is a lefty with a strong overhead, and if A can find his way to the net, then not only are AB’s overheads covering the middle of the court (optimal) but B’s strong overhead is looking away from the sun.

5) Often the best repartee to the Australian is a crosscourt lob, particularly off of the serve. It is made easier by being crosscourt (longer court to hit into) AND it catches A (the server) moving in the opposite direction. Therefore, it is particularly useful if C (the receiver) has a poor lob. In this situation, B (server’s partner) can play close to the net and poach often because he knows that the lob is not a threat.

The list of advantages of the AF is almost endless. HOWEVER, it has disadvantages as well. One of it’s principle disadvantages is that it is generally more difficult to play ‘serve and volley’ off of the AF. It’s usefulness to a serving team must be assessed for each of their four service points by referring to the strengths/weakness/tendencies of all players and the court conditions at the time of play.